Discrimination and African American and Caucasian cultures

Paula Johnson
Essay IV
Professor Carol Robinson


The African American and Caucasian Deaf Cultures& Discrimination


This essay will attempt to portray the fact that discrimination exists in the American society against the African American and the Caucasian deaf. These cultures were treated differently in regard to education, employment, and society in contrast to the hearing culture in these same aspects. Even within a culture where people have the same exact disability, yet because of the color of one’s skin, the African American deaf had to endure a double dose of adversity, that of deafness as well as being discriminated against by White deaf society .One would normally expect the white deaf culture to have compassion and empathy for their Black counterparts, but instead they show discrimination and racism just like the racists within mainstream white society.
Discrimination is a disease that has existed in African American and Caucasian cultures for centuries and even managed to transfer into the deaf community in spite of the fact that these individuals have the same disability. The deaf culture as a whole has been discriminated against by society because deafness was and, is still sometimes, looked upon as abnormal or a disability.
In the book, Do You Hear What I see? by Mavis A. Clark, explains that being deaf is viewed as a disability and that these individuals, (this article specifically talked about Black deaf men) “don’t fit in with the normal individuals in society”. African American deaf were discriminated by the hearing Caucasian society, and by the White deaf culture, and even misunderstood by their own race of people, during that time era. Hearing Blacks were overcome with their own dealings of discrimination and racism and could not focus on the deaf community at that time.
Both cultures (Black and White) deaf were considered as abnormal but the African American deaf were sometimes considered as retarded and often wrongly labeled. Delgado (1981) “found that deaf respondents from non-English- speaking homes are three to four times more likely to be classified as mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, or learning disabled.” I can’t imagine the disastrous impact on those individuals that were misevaluated. Also Mavis Clark quotes Mitchell and Synder (1997) “…that an ablest paradigm maligns disabled individuals as more abnormal and are subsequently distanced from individuals who are normal or meet the dominant ideology of normal.” In the society that we live in some people are quick to unjustly judge individuals that are different in any way whether it is in appearance, dialect, or preferred lifestyle. Also the book Are We that Different? by Earnest Hairston and Linwood Smith, claims about the Black deaf that “Society has for a long time delegated them to a role of inferiority, thus some actually believe they are inferior.” This accounts for the low self esteem possessed by some individuals of the deaf culture.
Therefore Black deaf Americans were disallowed the same quality education as White deaf Americans. The book “Inside Deaf Culture” states that “From the middle of the nineteenth century until desegregation began in 1955, every school for the deaf in the southern states made separate arrangements based on race” (pg. 38). The Black deaf students usually only received a second to fourth grade education or less. Non- hearing Black students learning abilities were further impaired as a result of the fact that they had to learn with their blind peers. On the larger scale Black deaf students continued to lack as a result of sociopolitical factors. They were prohibited from using sign language along with other schools for the deaf. Only oral learning was permitted for over a hundred years that further impacted the Black deaf students as most of the teachers didn’t have training in this method. Laws were put in place that would start the change of segregation after the Civil War but it would not end until the twentieth century. The Gallaudet College for the deaf was which was founded in 1864 did not permit Blacks to enroll until the year of 1952 and even then was only attended by a minuscule amount of Blacks by 1964.
Deaf and African American children by SheRel Pringle (KSU), Portrays that “African American deaf children were subjected to inferior education and schools with untrained teachers in disparaging environments. The schools were always segregated and the children were continually subjected to racism”. Another example of how the African American children were treated states that:
There is a mislabeling of d/Deaf African American children. These children are sometimes labeled emotionally disturbed. (Lane, 1988) In many inner city schools, where there is a high number of ethnic minority students, who are hearing, there is also a high number of these children mislabeled, emotionally disturbed.(Lane, 1988) The Deaf African American child that has the least amount of English skills, was also more likely to be labeled emotionally disturbed.(Lane, 1992).

This derogatory treatment was common for the African American deaf students as this article revealed. Thus portrays another form of discrimination that they were subjected to on a continuous basis.
It is also a known fact that Deaf children of all races tend to score below the average hearing students on standard achievements tests and Deaf African American students score even lower than deaf Caucasian students. As a result most deaf African American children are more prone not to attend college. “Of the 2,000 students attending Gallaudet, only 150 are African Americans. (Lane, 1996) Many d/Deaf and hard of hearing African American children are graduating from high school with certificates, rather than diplomas. (Aramburo, 1990)”. It was also noted that a lot of the deaf African American students that complete college usually don’t pursue higher goals or careers as they feel they’ve reached their limit. Or they have been made to feel that they won’t be able to elevate any higher in this society.
Inside Deaf Culture by Carol Padden and Tom Humphries (2003) reveals that separation of African American deaf children from the Caucasian students was the strictly enforced and throughout society as well during the mid 1800’s. The Deaf Caucasian lived a life of separation from the African American deaf and they had separation in schools, society, and clubs. In fact most of the Caucasian deaf did not know where the African American deaf lived, where they socialized, nor did they know much about the location of their schools. The African American students had to occupy buildings that were dilapidated and had no electricity, they had to use candles for lighting: as opposed to the Caucasian students who had nice buildings with electricity.
There were attempts made to admit Black deaf students to the schools after the Civil War but some of the teachers and administrators chose to resign rather than submit to the laws of integration. In several cases they even let schools close down rather than integrate. After integration did occur for the African American deaf they were placed under the same roof but still were housed in separate parts of the building. This caused a greater expense to keep everyone separate but to the racist it was worth it to keep students apart.
African American deaf students were sometimes forced to reject their fictive kinship for the sake of academic or career success. They are encouraged to be deaf first to be a part of the deaf culture and to think in turns of racelessness. Many African Americans choose to reinforce their Black culture first and as a result fail to assimilate in the deaf schools. Many African American deaf attended segregated residential programs or inner city programs of lower status that weren’t recognized by the mainstream deaf schools. As a result of their exclusion from advancement programs the African American students formed their own “BDA” group that assisted in giving them more power and involvement in the NAD activities and leadership roles.
The number of deaf teachers in the U.S. educational systems is very small, and the teachers of African American decent are a very low percentage. For example Christensen and Delgado (1993) noted that approximately 37% of deaf children in the United States are from minority racial or ethnic cultures, yet 97% of their teachers are White (European American)”. It is highly unlikely for deaf Black children to have the benefit of an African American consultant or teacher .Yet it is necessary for them to have the Black role model as they mature into adults. Having role models is imperative as it provides encouragement and gives the individual a more positive self image. Most of the administrators, teachers, counselors, that are available for African Americans in general are white hearing persons.
There aren’t many “role models” in the lives of deaf Black children. The importance of having role models of the same race is imperative for ones self esteem and I can attest to the impact of what having a role model with similar attributes had on my life. As an African American, I had the opportunity to experience having all African American teachers for one year of my life and the impact was phenomenal! I attended an all Black school in 1968 in North Carolina (as the schools did not integrate until the following year), and that was my best year in school. I received more support and encouragement than I ever had in my entire scholastic experience and the teachers projected more of a positive attitude toward me. As a result that year I received the best grades that I had ever achieved academically!
In Mairian Corker’s book Deaf and Disabled, Or Deafness Disabled? (Corker 1994b:6), she also spoke in terms of the deaf in general having deaf role models stating that, ”The model Deaf or disabled person is the one who smiles through all number of trauma, overcomes every barrier placed in their path with tact and diplomacy, and copes with a minimum of support without complaint.” This suggests that the deaf must tolerate more than the average person and superior performance is always expected.
The fact was that most of the deaf cultures were educated in manual labor skills and the notion that the deaf culture would never exceed beyond the lower middle class and blue collar jobs. The African American and the Caucasian deaf students the Black deaf were placed in vocational schools, and for the Black deaf, this was regardless of age or mental status. “Studies by Allen, Rawlings, and Schildroth (1989) and Schroedel and Watson (1991) revealed a pattern of overrepresentation of African American deaf respondents in vocational preparation courses in secondary and postsecondary educational settings”. The inferior outlook of the deaf suggested that their skills and abilities were limited to the vocation status. . Deaf History Unveiled by John Vickry Van Cleve. Portrays the view “that deaf people would never rise far beyond the lower middle class, never occupy what today are called white collar jobs.” (Vickry, 1993). This contrary instinct was a form of bondage to the deaf community as a whole and put barriers in place that would keep them from elevating their status in society. This practice was common but unfair as any individual should be judged upon their skills, talents, and abilities which vary from person to person and should never be based upon the color of ones skin or upon a disability. A person may have a dysfunction in one area but yet have superior skills in other areas. As there are plenty of individuals that have handicaps but yet possess superior and marketable skills. The White deaf were able to sometimes obtain jobs of higher status but only helped each other in this aspect.
Both Black and White deaf cultures began to rebel against the limitations in the 1850’s and made demands for higher education for greater achievement within the groups. W.E.B. Du Bois believed that vocational education would only place a ceiling on a person superseding their goals. “He suggests education that allowed all persons to utilize fully their talent”. (Vickry,2003).
Vocation was stigmatized by Charles A. Bennett’s book History of Manual and Industrial Education Up to 1870 states that, “publicly supported industrial education was widely accepted throughout America for children who were orphans, deaf, blind, the feeble, Negroes, and Indians. In many of the institutions for these children, the industrial school idea took deep root.”(Vickry, 2003). Although this statement was racist and demeaning it was embraced by the African American culture and the Caucasian culture. This confirmed that the outlook for this type of worked was looked upon as inferior by the upper class and attempted to keep the African American and Caucasian deaf culture subdued in society. Vocational programs were pioneered in the Schools for the Deaf in the 1800’s. The Gallaudet families also were strong advocates of vocational training for the deaf and consisted of cabinet making, shoemaking, coopering, and weaving were some of the courses offered. Vocational training didn’t offer any promotions for the deaf culture it only dictated placement for this culture.
African American deaf were not welcome into the job market and only had hope through education and vocation. Booker T Washington advocated industrial education stating that it benefited in mental training, teaches how to earn a living, and teaches dignity of labor. This mentality cemented the deaf cultures stance in society. The minority acceptance of the manual labor positions assigned to them by their proponents of vocational education limited their futures.
Multicultural Issues in Deafness,” argues that vocational education as the means to group salvation or advancement”. (Vickry, 2003). Du Bois disagrees and claims that vocational oriented education limited African Americans achievements as defined by the white man. I agree with Du Bois, as he also argued against Washington’s’ approach stating that his stance excused whites from their political, social, and economic responsibility toward the black community.
Discrimination was even displayed in the sports arena involving the African American deaf, as the athletic clubs aggressively sought out Black athletes but they still were not permitted to have a membership.

Deaf Persons of Asian American, Hispanic American, and African American Backgrounds: A Study of Intraindividual Diversity and Identity by Susan Foster and Waithera Kinuthia examined deaf culture and performed interviews with several cultures. Topics covered all aspects of deafness, but I focused on the African American and Caucasian deaf cultures. It was pointed out that deaf African Americans are discriminated against by hearing Black people and the Caucasian deaf culture. The African American deaf feel that they are also misunderstood by the hearing African Americans. It is also common for an hearing African American to not come in contact with other African American deaf or even any of the deaf community at all. I can attest that during my lifetime I’ve only come in contact with maybe two deaf people. I’ve seen more deaf students since becoming a student here at KSU.
In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens, by Alice Walker conveys how the African American woman was stripped of her respect, dignity, and hope yet she held on to her dreams. Though she was not deaf she was subjected to some of the same discrimination the deaf endured.
The African American woman has been a victim of racism since slavery began. Similar to the deaf culture she was not allowed to develop her skills and there were barriers that would keep her from elevating her status in life. In addition this Black woman was continuously raped by the slave master, and whomever else he allowed to violate her. It was common practice for the Black slave woman to nurse the “masters” babies as his wife wanted to keep flawless breasts. The African American slave woman was full of potential and talents but could only dream as she knew she would never have the chance to fulfill her dreams, yet by the Grace of God she managed to keep her sanity. The abuse was so overwhelming she also had to bare her husband’s children, who might be sold if the master chose to do so, and she bared the master’s children as well. As a result there will never be a pure race in the United States. Racism was at its maximum during those days and the slave women and men were sometimes beat to death as they were only thought of as the masters’ property.
“Deaf people have a vision of integration that is different from what hearing people envision for them. Deaf people see a grounding the culture and signed language of the deaf community in which they live as the most important factor in their lives. Integration comes more easily and more effectively from these roots. In short, Deaf people teach one another not only how to be Deaf people in the United States, but also how to function in the world of others.” states Multicultural Issues in Deafness (Delgado, Christensen, (1993). However, it is more difficult for the African American deaf to attain a sense of community as a result of social forces that promote isolation from white deaf communities.
Both groups have been victims of discrimination from the hearing society for centuries, as shown in different studies. The Black deaf and other deaf Americans equally share oppression and Tricia Leakey equates, “that African Americans cannot entirely lose their ethnicity no matter what they do, similarly most deaf people will also always be recognizably deaf.” In comparison the Deaf White students also share similarities in discrimination as studies by Rittenhouse, Johnson, Overton, Freeman, and Jaussi (1992) portrayed that:
…similarities between the Black civil rights movement and the social protests organized by persons with disabilities, including deaf persons. They proposed that many of the most important lessons of these social movements , as well as the most persistent challenges, apply to both Black and deaf Americans, including the importance of coalition building, a need for role models in education continued battles to success in employment and interpretations of legislation that seem to undermine intended outcomes. In combination with acceptance by and identification with other deaf persons is fundamental to the social construction of deafness and the culturally Deaf community.


The fight for civil rights was apparent when the deaf culture fought for a deaf president at the Gallaudet College. The fight was relentless and vigorous and in the end they were victorious. They even had the support of top government officials and Jessie Jackson and even adapted Martin Luther King’s slogan “I Have a Dream”.
Hairston and Linwood, “Are We that Different”, “Except for being Black and suffering the trials and tribulations resulting from “too much” pigmentation, our deafness is no more difficult nor any less so than a White person’s deafness. Another problem mentioned earlier was “an unfavorable self-image”. This, we believe is the Real problem. This is where the real difference lies—in the measure of self-esteem”. Unfortunately this issue is not only a deaf culture problem it has saturated mainstream society for centuries.
The only vocation the African slave knew was to work in the fields and beckon to the master’s call. Therefore discrimination has existed for the deaf African American and hearing every since they stepped foot on U.S. soil but many have managed to tear down some of the barriers that kept us in bondage. Finally we have the freedom to utilize our talents and skills and obtain wealth as now the sky is the limit! Yes We Can! Though discrimination has saturated society for all cultures of peoples today things are changed to a degree. For the most part there is no more segregation in schools and most aspects of life. The African American and Caucasian deaf now intermingle and now are in the same organizations. For the first time in the history of the United States we now have a multicultural President whom represents several cultures. Hopefully this African American role model will continue to break down discrimination barriers for all people, hearing and non hearing, perhaps one day there really won’t be any discrimination in America.





Works Cited
Clark, Mavis. “Do you hear what I see: Learning Experience of Black men who are Deaf, or Hard of Hearing?”
Corker, Marian. Deaf and Disabled or Deafness Disabled: Towards a human rights perspective. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1998.
Foster, Susan, and, Kinuthia,Waithera. “Deaf Persons of Asian American, Hispanic American, and African Backgrounds: A Study of Intraindividual Diversity and Identity.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 8.3 (2003): 271-290.
Padden, Carol, and Humphries, Tom “Inside Deaf Culture”,
Parasnis, Ila, ed. Cultural and Language Diversity and the Deaf Experience. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Pringle, Sherel Deaf and African American Children.14 Apr.2009
sherelpringle@prodigy.net
http://www.deafed.net/PublishedDocs/sub/010404b.htm
Van Cleve, John Vickrey, ed. Deaf history Unveiled: Interpretations from the New Scholarship. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2002.
Walker, Alice. In Search of our Mothers’ Gardens (676). Ways of Reading An Anthology For Writers. Ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. Bedford/St. Martin’s. Boston, 2005. 676-684.
Hairston, Earnest and Smith, Linwood. Black and Deaf in America Are We that Different.
Maryland: T.J. Publishers, Inc, 1983.

Black and Deaf discrimination

Racism and discrimination has been around for centuries. When will it end? The deaf were mistreated by society because they were looked at as being inferior because they couldn't hear. Yet they didn't allow other Black people to attend their schools back in the day. Black people have been discriminated against for so long that it is a way of life. Things have improved somewhat throughout the years as the Bible is fullfilling itself (whether man likes it or not, God's will, will be manifested). Thanks to money hungry George Bush destruction of the world we finally got a multicultural president! If it wasn't for George we would still be going downhill!(After that performance you would have voted for Sponge Bob!) Thank God Americans do have brains, Now we have a chance to Survive!! Answer: The only place Discrimination and Racism won't exist is in Heaven!